CONTESTING CULTURAL REPRESENTATIONS:
Using Internet-Mediated Communication for Cross-Cultural Education

 Cynthia Dickel Dunn
University of Northern Iowa
U. S. A.

Debra J. Occhi
Miyazaki International College
Japan

Electronic Communication between US and Japanese Students
Image Making
Discovering Differences and Similarities
References

Globalization increasingly brings people of diverse backgrounds into contact with one another.  While such trends increase the necessity for people to learn about other cultures, new forms of communication such as the Internet also provide new opportunities for this type of learning.  In this paper we present electronic communication via the Internet as a pedagogical tool for helping students learn about and communicate with people in other countries. [paragraph 1]

One challenge of cross-cultural education is the common tendency to engage in overgeneralization and stereotyping when learning about groups different from one’s own.  Scholarship on Japan, for example, often portrays Japanese society as group-oriented, homogenous, and harmonious, while ignoring internal diversity and conflict (Befu, 1980; Mouer and Sugimoto, 1986).  At the same time, assumptions that people everywhere are “really the same” can lead students to overlook or misunderstand cultural differences.  Cross-cultural educators, then, must strive to find ways to help students understand cultural differences without essentializing those differences or objectifying the people they study. [paragraph 2]

Interviews with native members of other cultures have been suggested as one means for providing students with access to "emic" perspectives (native perspectives) and creating more positive attitudes towards the language or society they are studying (Barro, Byram, Grimm, Morgan, and Roberts, 1993; Robinson-Stuart and Nocon, 1996).  Use of the Internet opens up new possibilities for students to engage in this type of communication and can be used to help students critically explore cultural stereotypes (Abrams, 2002).   Such communication promotes active learning in which students engage in activities involving higher-order thinking and exploration of their own attitudes and values (Bonwell and Eison, 1991, p. 2).   It also helps students achieve a more nuanced understanding of individual differences in both their own and other cultures. [paragraph 3]

Electronic Communication between US and Japanese College Students
 

In this article we discuss our experiences in fostering electronic communication between students in our classes at Miyazaki International College (MIC) in Japan and the University of Northern Iowa (UNI) in the United States. MIC offers a B.A. in Comparative Culture; all students spend their third semester on studying abroad in an English-speaking country. Half of the MIC students were studying Japanese Film and Media just prior to studying abroad.  The rest were upperclassmen in a World Ethnography class.  The UNI students were studying Japan in an upper division Non-Western Cultures course.  Communication between the classes took place using an electronic “bulletin board” where students could post and respond to messages.  All messages were publicly available to students and instructors in both classes, but the instructors did not actively participate in the discussions.  (Logistics of e-exchange are described in Dunn and Occhi, 2003)  [paragraph 4]

Because of differences in university schedules, the American students had already been studying Japan for two months when the exchange began. They began by asking about some aspect of Japanese culture that reflected class topics.  We later added two discussion categories labeled “Images of Japan” and “Images of the United States” to allow students to present their images of the other group, to be faced with images held by others about them, and to discuss these images.  Both the initial questions and the discussions of “Images” tended to focus primarily on Japan rather than the United States. Most of our discussion here will therefore focus on representations of Japanese culture. [paragraph 5]

In her critique of the essentializing tendencies of much writing about “culture,” Abu-Lughod (1991) suggests as an alternative “ethnographies of the particular” which would focus on how wider social forces are embodied and experienced in individual lives. Similarly, Geertz (1983) has written about the need for anthropologists to tack between the “experience distant” concepts used by theorists for social analysis and the  “experience near” concepts that people themselves use in interpreting their everyday lives, arguing that both are essential for understanding another group’s way of life (pp. 56-58).  In their initial questions, the American students seemed to be seeking precisely this type of “experience near” account as a way to either verify or complement the more “experience distant”  generalizations acquired from readings and lectures.  Common topics included the education system (entrance exams, school uniforms, group work in schools), the practice of miai marriages in which people are introduced to potential spouses by a go-between or match-maker, religious practices, and the perception that Japanese emphasize groups or conformity.  Many of these questions showed that the American students found problematic aspects of Japanese culture that were perceived as violating individual freedom or self-expression. [paragraph 6] 

For example, the most common question concerned the Japanese system of high school and college entrance exams. The Americans had learned that Japanese high schools are tracked, with admission to both high school and college usually based solely on an entrance exam. Perceiving this system as unfair and unduly stressful, they asked how the Japanese students experienced this system and what they thought of it. The Japanese responses reveal considerable diversity of opinion and experience (spelling and grammar are reproduced verbatim from the original messages):

[American] We are interested in the topic of Standardized testing, and how it affects your life. How much pressure did you feel while taking some of the entrance exams for high school and college? How much time did you spend studying? Do you feel this is a fair method of evaluation, compared to an alternative systems such as grading? [Japanese] We think Standardized testing is a fair method. In Japan, most entrance exams of high school are Standardized test. We take same test, so high school judge man can understand students level. In case of College entrance exams, we can choice some kinds of test. For example, Standardized test, only interview test, recommendation of the student's school and recommendation by myself.

[Japanese] Recantly, in Japan entrance exam by recommendation from school increase, and I entered to a collage by only a interview so I don't feel a pressure. It's a important that attitude in school rather than grades but it's my case. I think that it's not a fair.  I want to evaluate a parsonality etc, not only grades.  

[Japanese] When I took the entrance exams of high school, I went to cram school five times a week and studied hard. At that time I want to run away from here because it was very hard for me and I received much pressure. But when I entranced to college, I did not took the entrance exams. Only documents, so it was very easy to entrance in the college. But we have a lot of homework, so it is hard now. I think this is a fair method of evaluation. I think it is hard for students and they receive much pressure, but students can get a lot of information and that become plus for ourselves.  

[Japanese] I think it is not fair to determine one's future by entered high school or college. But I think entrance exam is importnat because people who studyed hard, they can get good things. [Japanese] In my opinion, it works very well for students but it is important use case by case. This is because the entrance exam is suitable for knowing the level of student's knowledge but it makes them seriously and nervous. Finally, some students may lose interests. That is why basically I disagree this system. [paragraph 7]

When asked about their images of America, many of the Japanese responded with images of American power and control, along with automobiles.  The Iowans generally agreed with these images but sometimes expressed ambivalence towards images of American power:

[Japanese] What image do you have about the U.S. I have the following images about it; the American think that they have super power all over the world and they are the strongest.  Is this right? Then, I think that the U.S. is the biggest country in economy. There are a lot of cars (car society).  Is all thngs correct?

[American] It is true that most people in the US own a car.  I have one, my sister has one, my parents have a car and two trucks to use on our farm.  I feel that the huge economy that that the US has makes it the number one power in the world.  Although I feel this is true it is important that the US works with other contries to keep peace in the world.

[American] America may be a powerful  nation, but no one nation can run the world. In my opinion, we've become careless with out power and it may come back to haunt us one day. Yes we do have many cars here.  I personally worked for a couple years in high school to buy myself a car (which my brother later wrecked, he was ok but the car was destroyed.) [paragraph 8]

As with the Japanese responses, American answers to Japanese questions often revealed a diversity of opinion within the society.  For example, one thread fostered a debate among the Iowans about gun ownership. This revealed a gendered split in American attitudes; women were anti-gun, though the men generally supported gun ownership:

[Japanese male A] I have learned that having a gun is admitted by statute in the US. I think many Japanese people may not agree with that law. What's your opnion about that? Do you think that law should be changed or not?   

[American male 1] I also agree that people should not have guns. I guess shotguns are needed for hunting but handguns are not necessary and should be outlawed! I personally would never own a gun because they are dangerous. How are the gun laws in Japan?   

[Japanese male B] I agree with your opinion about gun. I also think that hand gun isn't necessary because, gun causes crime, war, and so on. Japanese gun's law is harder than American gun's law I think.   

[American male 2] I agree with the right to own a gun. If not used in hunting a gun can be used for protection. It's sad to think someone might need to carry a gun with them to protect themself, but that is the world we live in. It's not as easy as going to a store and buying a gun though. You must go through a process. You must be licensed to own some guns and there are background checks done on the individual who is trying to buy the gun.   

[American male 3] I feel that the law that allows people to own guns is a good one. I personally own four guns and use them to hunt. This law is one of the foundations that keep this a free nation and should not be changed.  

[American female 1] I think that there should be a law against guns. Sometimes Americans get to wrapped up in the law of "freedom of speech" that bad things like guns are allowed to be sold to anyone. I think our crime rates would reduce dramatically if they were banned.  

[American female 2] People are allowed to have guns here, and I don't really agree with that. We have a lot of high crime areas in our country. It seems as though in Japan, crimes and murders are much less likely. [paragraph 9]

In response to these and other questions, both Japanese and Americans often mentioned individual variations (that not everyone does things the same way) and described their own experience as typical or atypical for their society. As with the gun debate, diversity of opinions in both societies also emerged in discussions about topics such school uniforms and wage earning mothers with young children.  Topics including religion, gender roles, marriage, and even diet also prompted discussions of social change. These exchanges may help to subvert stereotypes of other countries as homogenous or timeless. As one American student’s course evaluation stated, “It was very interesting to learn that not everyone in Japan does things exactly the same way or has the same feelings on complicated issues. I think that without these insightful discussions, it would have been very easy for me to simply generalize many aspects of Japanese culture.” [paragraph 10]

Despite the emphasis on individual diversity and social change, students made virtually no references to diversity of socioeconomic class or ethnicity, and there was relatively little discussion of gender issues. College students, particularly perhaps those who are members of dominant groups, may tend to perceive the behavior of their own social group as defining the national “norm,” and discussions with foreigners do little, in and of themselves, to challenge those perceptions. [paragraph 11]

Image Making
 

Cross-cultural comparison has often provided a basis for “cultural critique” of one’s own society (Marcus and Fischer, 1986). While this is a desirable result of cross-cultural study, it can also lead to over-idealization of the other society. Such idealizations emerged in several of the “Images” that Japanese and American students held about each other’s country. For example, Japanese were imagined as hard-working, respectful and caring to others, with a superior educational system, a healthier lifestyle, and better family values than Americans. While many Japanese agreed with at least some of these assessments, they also took the opportunity to contest or qualify the Americans’ images. For example, while some Japanese supported American perceptions of a healthy diet with lots of fish, others described changing dietary patterns and/or their own experience to qualify this image:

[American]  Before I took this class, I visualized Japan as densly populated and mountainous country. I imagined Japanese people to be healthy people, who valued eduacation, ate fish, rice and frequently rode bicycles.

[American] Hello, I almost wish that America was more like Japan in some ways. When I think of Japan I think of your lifestyles compared to ours. The people of Japan seem to be very involved in the well being of their health. Your diet consists of wholesome food, where as ours seems to consist of unhealthy junk food.

[Japanese] I read your message and I think that your image of Japan is true but recently Japanese eating habit is changing, we like to eat meat better than fish. Of cource, we still eat fish but more often to eat meat, I think.  

[Japanese]  Last year, I went to Australia for studing abroad.  Then i felt the difference from Japan and Australia.  First thing is eating habit. In Japan, we eat fish and rice and vegitables and meat. I think that is a good balance of eating habit.

[Japanese]   I think your image of Japan about health care is correct.  We eat healthy food every day. This is partly because we are island explains Japan has the higher life expectancy than any other country. However, there has been western influence on our diet habit these days. For example, lots of young people eat hamburger or pizza, caring less about their health.

[Japanese] My life style is not good since 2 years ago, because I live in flat by myself now. Almost univercity student who live in flat themself, commonly lifestyle is so irregularity. Men's lifestyle are very bad in particularly. Almost we are eating jank food every days. Our parents say like this; Make a dish yourself in the home, it's better to your health and economy. We know that. But it can not be helped. I won't do it. It's too much trouble.  How is your life style? It's good or not? [paragraph 12]

Sometimes both groups seemed to idealize the other society in exactly the same areas. For instance, both Japanese and American students found admirable aspects in each other’s educational systems. Furthermore, both Americans and Japanese assumed that the other culture was more “family oriented,” perhaps in reaction to perceived problems in their own society:

[American] I enjoyed learning about Japanese families. It seems like Japanese families are closer to one another then American families.  I admire Japanese families and wish American families would adopt Japanese family values. … I admire Japanese families because they seem to spend a lot more time together than American families do.  My understanding is that many Japanese families have close contact with their extended family and realitives.

[Japanese] I think Japanese families are not enough spend a lot more time together. My family spent much time with us when we were a child, but gradually they don't spend a more time together. I have five in my family.  My father is a P.E teacher, my mother is a housewife, my older sister doesn't live with us because she goes to college in Fukuoka, and my younger brother is a high school student. My father comes home lately for job. My younger brother goes to a cram school deep into the night. So we have little time to be together. I think other families are the same, too. Japanese people are hard woker.

[Japanese] I think American families are more closer than Japan because Japanese parents work hard and no free time to be their children.

Such discussions may challenge overly idealized images, lead to more sophisticated understandings of another culture, and foster reflection on one’s own practices. [paragraph 13]

Discovering Differences and Similarities
 

While many of the initial questions and discussions focused on customs that students found strange about each other’s cultures, commonalities of experience or preference also emerged.  For example, when a Japanese student described a friend who missed her mother’s cooking while she was away at college, a flurry of responses came from Americans who felt the same way. Dating practices and tastes in clothing styles and music also proved to be similar. Sometimes students drew parallels between customs in the two countries, as when one American compared Japanese miai marriages with American dating services and personal ads. This sense of commonality with people in another society may help alleviate tendencies to stereotype foreign people as exotic and incomprehensible. [paragraph 14]

When we encounter people from another society we simultaneously become aware both of how different other people’s perspectives can be from our own and of our common humanity.  We believe that this chance to communicate electronically helped American and Japanese students to experience both of these perspectives and to become more aware of individual experience and variation within cultures.  The exchange allowed students to rethink prior images or acquired information about another culture as well as their own.  Students also state that they find the exchange an interesting and important addition to other methods of learning. What the students have made clear to us through their dialogue enriches our knowledge as instructors as well. [paragraph 15]
 

References
 

Abrams, Z. (2002)  Surfing to cross-cultural awareness: Using Internet-mediated projects to explore cultural stereotypes.  Foreign Language Annals 35, 141-60.

Abu-Lughod, L. (1991)  Writing against culture.  In R. G. Fox (Ed.), Recapturing anthropology: Working in the present (pp. 137-62).  Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research.

Barro, A., Byram, M., Grimm, H. H., Morgan, C., & Roberts, C. (1993)   Cultural studies for advanced language learners.  In D. Graddol, L. Thompson, & M. Byram (Eds.), Language and culture (pp. 55-70).  Philadelphia, PA: Multilingual Matters.

Befu, H.  (1980)  A critique of the group model of Japanese society.  Social Analysis, 5/6 (December), 29-43.

Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991)  Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom.  Washington D.C.: George Washington University, Clearinghouse on Higher Education.

Dunn, C. D. & Occhi, D. J. (2003)  Iowa meets Miyazaki: Bringing coursework to life through a cross-cultural electronic exchange.  Education About Asia, 8(2), 40-44. 

Geertz, C. (1983)  Local knowledge: Further essays in interpretive anthropology.  New York, NY: Basic Books.

Marcus, G. E. & Fischer, M. M. J. (1986)  Anthropology as cultural critique: An experimental moment in the human sciences.  Chicago, IL: University of Chicago.

Mouer, R. & Sugimoto, Y. (1986)  Images of Japanese society.  London, UK: Kegan Paul.

Robinson-Stuart, G. & Nocon, H. (1996)  Second culture acquisition: Ethnography in the foreign language classroom.  Modern Language Journal, 80, 431-49.

Cynthia Dickel Dunn is Assistant Professor of Anthropology at the University of Northern Iowa in the United States.  Her research interests include Japanese honorific use and issues of cultural representation.  (Contact the author at Cyndi.Dunn@uni.edu; contact the editors of EMME at emme@eastern.edu.)

Debra J. Occhi is Assistant Professor of Anthropology at Miyazaki International College in Japan.  She is co-editor (with Gary B. Palmer) of Languages of sentiment: Pragmatic and conceptual approaches to cultural constructions of emotional substrates (John Benjamins, 1999).  (Contact the author at docchi@miyazaki-mic.ac.jp; contact the editors of  EMME at emme@eastern.edu.)