Introduction
 

Yoshiko, a nine-year-old Japanese girl, and her family have recently moved to a typical Midwestern college town, where both of her parents have begun a new career as professors.  There are not many international people in the community.  Yoshiko does not speak any English and the school in which she has been enrolled does not have an English as a Second Language (ESL) program.  She is forced to sit in the regular classroom all day long, where she does not understand anything that is said to her and none of the teachers in the school speaks Japanese.  The student teacher in this classroom worries a great deal about her, because she does not know how to help her and she is not familiar with Japanese culture.  She approaches the classroom teacher, who tells her, “Don’t worry about her.  She doesn’t speak English.”  Yoshiko then struggles through her year of third grade with a teacher who is not trained to help her, does not care, and will not take time to give her what she needs.  [paragraph 1].  

While the above story is fictional, the problem depicted is not uncommon.  There are at least 3.5 million children identified as limited in English proficiency (LEP) in schools in the United States (Fillmore, 2000).  Despite this number, some schools have no programs for LEP students, and many schools have limited ESL or bilingual classes.  In this situation, students are placed in mainstream classes after only one or two years in such programs, where teachers are put on the spot to educate students whom they are not trained to help.  This is partly due to the lack of funds or personnel in the schools and also an influence of the governmental policy.  Despite the 1974 ruling on Lau v. Nichols (Wang, 1995), which requires schools to provide services to LEP students, more recent government educational policy has implemented plans to bring immigrant students to “proficient” levels of English within three years (Olsen, 2000).   This policy is in contrast to language research which indicates that students need five to seven years in language programs to reach academic proficiency (Cummins, 1981; Gersten, 1999).  As a result of such a government policy, more and more students are placed into mainstream classrooms before being ready and without any further support from ESL teachers.  The mainstream teachers often have difficulty meeting the needs of the increasing number of LEP students coming into their classrooms, primarily because these teachers are trained neither in second language acquisition nor in ESL.  [paragraph 2]

The framework for this research is a narrative inquiry, which allows researchers to make meaning from the lived experiences of others.  These experiences can only be told by individuals (Riessman, 1993).  These stories are interpretations of facts that shape their individual lives and are foundations of their identities (Rosenwald & Ochberg, 1992).  In this particular study, the lived experiences, gathered through previously published research and personal accounts, are those of language learners in American and Canadian school systems, and their stories “illustrate that language learning is a complex, contextualized, and narrativized experience” (Phillion & He, in press).  In most cases, language learning occurs in the larger context of school, home and community, which influences the experience of the language learner.  [paragraph 3]

In light of the above framework, this paper reviews the literature, which depicts the problems that immigrant children face when placed in mainstream classes, in an effort to help teachers who have such students in their classrooms.  The authors also provide suggestions to teachers for creating a comfortable environment for immigrant students, which can be implemented without ESL or language training.  [paragraph 4]
 

The Problems  
 

There is a plethora of dilemmas that English language learners (ELL) face as they begin to build a new life in a strange land.  The problems stem primarily from linguistic and cultural differences and are not the fault of their teachers.  It is, however, important that teachers understand these problems in order to provide them with necessary help.   [paragraph 5]

Struggling with Language

Language shock is perhaps one of the most common phenomena that language learners experience when adjusting to their new environment.  Language shock is the anxiety which occurs when an immigrant first enters a community where he or she does not speak or is not proficient in the dominant language (Olsen, 2000).  This is a common occurrence in the classroom where students desire to speak English fluently; however, due to the complexity of language learning, this does not happen quickly, and students must struggle for several years to understand what is said in their classrooms, in the hallways, at lunch, as well as out in the community.  The anxiety that comes with trying to speak the dominant language is provoked by the ignorance of others.  Olsen (2000) recounts stories of students being mocked by their peers because of the way they speak English.  While visiting an ESL class, Olsen observed a student visitor who commented that it sounds like he is no longer in America when he comes into that classroom.  In this particular case, the teacher was allowing the students to communicate in their native languages.  Following the visitor's comment, everyone became silent and would not continue in their native language.  Comments such as this only aggravate the anxiety that immigrant children have.  In addition, it is difficult for these immigrant students to socialize with English speaking peers, because the immigrant students are often rejected by their peers (Olsen, 2000).   [paragraph 6]

Several examples of such experiences were documented.  One such case is reported in Li (1999) who explained that when she went to pick up her daughter, Amy, from school, she began to ask her some questions about her day in Chinese.  Amy was upset with her mother and later explained that her classmates would laugh at her in those situations.  The frustration that Amy expressed to her mother was perhaps the result of what happened in school.  Whenever Amy’s teacher inquired as to who made a particular mistake on a given assignment, one of her classmates always pointed to her, saying “the Chinese girl,” when it was usually not her (p. 213).  The assumption was made that because she was an LEP student, it had to be her making the mistakes.   [paragraph 7]

The experience of language shock can also be found in the autobiography of Eva Hoffman (1989).  When she emigrated from Poland to Canada with her family, she did not know a single word of English.  When she arrived at her first school, she and her sister were completely stunned.  They did not even have the motivation to learn the language at first, and they really had trouble learning how to speak.  When Eva finally did make friends, she experienced much difficulty in trying to understand their language.  Olsen (2000) explains that learning the language of youth is particularly difficult for immigrant children.  Eva was certainly not alone in this case.  Eva made every attempt to appear to understand conversations, but she admitted that she did not understand even half of what she heard, even one year after having lived in Canada.  She also struggled in making conversation with her friends.  She remembered a situation when her friends were telling jokes and her frustration when she tried to tell a joke and no one laughed when she came to the punch line.  To add to her anxiety, Eva was completely against the emigration of her family to Canada.  She loved Poland and did not want to leave.  This is a very common occurrence among immigrant children, which brings with it an interruption and diversion from “the linear path in which growth in childhood is often conceptualized” (Korn, 1997, p. 18).  Because of this disruption of Eva’s normal childhood, she had a difficult time adjusting to her new life in Canada.   [paragraph 8]

The anxiety created by language shock results in a greater difficulty in performing well academically, especially when trying to learn the new language.  Krashen’s (1982) affective filter theory applies here; the affective filter is a mechanism in the brain which controls how much language acquisition occurs.  When a student experiences high levels of stress or anxiety, the affective filter is switched on and the student will have difficulty in acquiring the new language.  When the affective filter is down, language acquisition will occur more efficiently and quickly.  The lack of motivation and self-esteem is also a factor that triggers the affective filter, preventing students from learning their new language.  Therefore, educators need to provide an environment that reduces stress and anxiety and also increases immigrant students’ motivation and self-esteem.   [paragraph 9]

To add to the language shock that occurs upon entering a new land, there is also a struggle that takes place in many students’ lives.  They want to learn English and become fluent in English.  As a result of the types of torment that take place as described above in Amy's case, they can associate negativity with speaking their native language.  Yet when they go home, that is the language in which their parents communicate.  Many immigrant students associate fluency in English with becoming American and thus attempt to give up their native language.  Yet their parents insist that they maintain the use of their native language.  It is important to the parents and other older family members to pass down their language to their descendents and thus they are not as willing as their children to give up one of their only links to their homeland.  As a result, these students are caught up in a battle between two different languages.  At home they are expected to speak their native language, but at school there is pressure to speak in English.  It is as if the children are being pulled in opposite directions (Mushi, 2001; Olsen, 2000).  As Fillmore (2000) describes, the majority of immigrant children believe that continuing to speak their native language hinders them from being accepted at school because English is the only accepted language.  Immigrant children learn this quickly from the torment that they receive.  They feel it is unacceptable to be different and language is one of the most obvious differences.  Thus immigrant children make every effort to avoid speaking their native language (in some cases with the support of their parents).  Many immigrant children give themselves English names (sometimes parents initiate it) and insist on adopting the fashion rules of the American student (Fillmore, 2000).  ).  One might think that immigrant children learning English would only be adding one more language to their linguistic skills.  However, in reality English tends to replace their native language, even as early as the second generation (Fillmore, 2000).   [paragraph 10]

This type of struggle is described in Hoffman’s (1989) story.  After some time in Canada, her mother made the comment to her that she was becoming “English.”  Not only was she losing her Polish language, but her way of thinking was changing to fit her new environment.  Many years later, when she returned to Poland, even her friends and acquaintances noticed the difference in her speech and mannerisms.   [paragraph 11]

This struggle is also prevalent among the Navajo people.  Deyhle’s (1991) research demonstrates the struggle that the elders of the Navajo people have in encouraging the youth of their community to learn their language.  Young Navajo people are not interested in learning their people’s language because in their mind success is equated with speaking fluent English.  What is more, there is great pressure from the public schools to assimilate and abandon their Navajo roots.  Deyhle (1991) noted that many students left the Navajo land to attend boarding schools.  Upon their return, they find that they no longer fit in with their people.  Jane, a participant in Deyhle’s (1991) research, was a student who participated in the boarding school program and is now unable to speak Navajo.  As a result, she feels uncomfortable in her own community.  She does not get along with other Navajo, and she feels stupid when she is with them.  While the issues concerning the Navajo and public schools go much further than language, the language struggle is a relevant problem.   [paragraph 12]

A similar story is reported by Fillmore (2000).  A Cantonese-speaking family who moved to the United States had two children.  One of them, Chu-mei, quickly learned some English and maintained a working knowledge of Cantonese.  However, Kai-fong did not have the same experience.  He remained an outsider at school, and his only friends were other Asian children who were also immigrants.  Once he began to learn English, he stopped speaking Cantonese altogether.  When his family attempted to converse with him in Cantonese, he would either respond in English or ignore them.  He soon began alienating himself from home and spending more time with his friends from school.  This was extremely difficult on their grandmother who was also living with the family.  This created a lot of tension among the grandmother, the parents, and Kai-fong.  Chu-mei spoke some Cantonese, but she also lost a lot of her language skills as she learned more and more English.   [paragraph 13]

Why does this issue between one’s native language and English matter?  Some educators and government officials argue that the goal should be to make immigrants assimilated to the dominant culture.  One does not have to go far to hear such comments as, “You are in America, so speak English!”  It is not a question that immigrants want to learn English, but to demand that they give up their native language and their native culture does more harm than good.  New language learners are likely to be more successful if, instead, they are encouraged to embrace their own culture as they learn the new language.  They should be encouraged to add to their existing language and culture, rather than to give up their own for the new one (Cummins, 1981 & 1996; Norton, 2000).   [paragraph 14]

Struggling with Pedagogy and Curriculum

Another important difficulty that many immigrant children face is in understanding the curriculum and pedagogy used in America’s schools.  Our curriculum is largely Euro-centric (Cummins, 1996) and might even have a unique, American style.  When immigrant students enter the classroom here, they are not accustomed to our curriculum and often find it lacking an appreciation for other cultures (Igoa, 1995).  Part of the problem is in how some educators view other cultures.  One viewpoint is that some races or ethnic groups are genetically inferior and are incapable of performing at high academic levels.  Yet others believe that there are some cultures which are deficient, and as a result the people of that culture are not capable of achieving the same academic performance as others (Sue & Padilla, 1995).  Such beliefs lead to the devaluing of other peoples or cultures in our curricula.   [paragraph 15]

This type of attitude is described by Carger (1996).  Alejandro, a Mexican-American boy, was a student in a predominantly Latino-populated Catholic middle school in Chicago.  While the teachers and administrators never overtly stated that they believed their students were inferior, they did treat them as if they were.  Mrs. Wright, Alejandro’s homeroom teacher, often spoke to the students with a demeaning tone.  She did not allow the students to ask questions, nor did she encourage students to think on their own.  Many of her assignments included content to which her students could not relate.  For example, one task that the students were asked to complete was to describe the experience of going to the dentist.  Many of the students in Mrs. Wright’s class had never been to the dentist, so the students had resolved themselves to making up a story just to complete the assignment.  When students do not have the background knowledge that is needed to complete an assignment or learn new information in addition to having linguistic difficulties, such students experience “cognitive load,” which is usually lightened if the students are at least able to draw on their own experiences and knowledge (Meyer, 2000).  In the case of Mrs. Wright, students were not given the chance to make connections to the lessons from their previous knowledge and thus experienced this “cognitive load.”  [paragraph 16]

Another pedagogical problem that many immigrant students face is what Meyer (2000) calls “cultural load.”  The meaning of language is not only based on the linguistic features of the words, but also relies on cultural meaning.  The cultural knowledge that is needed but never explicitly explained for a learner to understand language is cultural load.  The ELL not only needs to understand the meaning of words, but “the cultural settings and uses that give words their 'U.S. English mainstream meanings’” (Meyer, p. 231).  Immigrant students’ peers and teachers often do not explain these meanings, and the immigrant students struggle not only to understand, but to learn when to use new words.  [paragraph 17]  
 

What Can a Mainstream Teacher Do to Help?
 

The problems that immigrant children face are extensive and complicated.  Despite the complexity of this issue, there are many steps that the mainstream classroom teacher could take to help make the classroom a better learning environment for immigrant children.  These suggestions are certainly not a complete list, and they are not a “quick fix” for the individual issues that teachers and their students may face.  However, based on a review of the research literature, the following is a starting point for making the classroom more inclusive of all students and for developing a positive learning environment for those children.  [paragraph 18]

Reduce the Cognitive Load

One very important step every teacher could take is to make every effort to reduce the “cognitive load” of the lessons they teach (Meyer, 2000).  Teachers can achieve this task by ensuring that they tap into their students’ prior knowledge and choose activities and assignments that allow students to draw on their knowledge and experiences.  It is crucial during the process of lesson planning that teachers take into account the capacities of the students involved.  Some immigrant students may not have had much schooling prior to entry into the United States and will not have as much background knowledge or experience on which to draw.  Ioga (1995) observed a significant amount of fragmented education in her students, which she says is not often disclosed to a school. This fragmentation refers to the previous education of some immigrant students.  Some of these students were in school only sporadically prior to coming to North America and others have had no previous education.  It is important to understand each student’s educational history in order to provide what is needed on an individual basis.   [paragraph 19]

Evaluate Teaching Strategies and Approaches

Another important step that Meyer (2000) suggests is that teachers pay attention to how they run their classroom.  Some students may have difficulty coping with the classroom management that the teacher has chosen.  For example, in many countries students are not to speak unless the teacher asks them a question (Chiang, 2000).  To volunteer answers might be considered boastful or conceited.  Many students will not question what the teacher says, even if they know it to be wrong.  Furthermore, in some countries, teachers are revered and given a higher level of authority (Alidou, 2000).  While many schools emphasize student-centered learning, where the students do most of the speaking, it may require some time before immigrant students are comfortable with this type of environment.  Regardless of what they may choose as their approach to teaching, teachers should be sure to provide structure with clear directions and to communicate with students individually.  Teachers might also avoid basing students’ effort solely on verbal performance (Chiang, 2000).  Teachers could consider varying their teaching styles to help these students adjust.  Going to a more traditional setting from time to time might be a welcomed change by some students, as Ioga (1995) noted.  One of her students, a boy from Ukraine, commented, “At last I feel I am in school, I feel like a student,” when she switched to a traditional approach to teaching one day (p. 155).  In addition, teachers should be aware of different communication styles from culture to culture before determining whether a student is misbehaving.  Parent-teacher conferences would be an appropriate forum in which to discuss these issues with parents before making any decisions regarding discipline toward a particular student (Alidou, 2000).   [paragraph 20]

Reduce the Cultural Load

To lighten the “cultural load” of the immigrant student is another step that teachers could take to make learning a more positive experience.  Meyer (2000) suggests that the most important action a teacher can take is to “treat the English learners, their homes and communities, and their primary languages and cultures with respect, not judgment” (p. 232).  Showing respect for these aspects of the immigrant child’s life begins by building personal relationships with the students and their families and by making an effort to include aspects of each child’s culture in the classroom on a regular basis.  One simple action each teacher should take is to learn to pronounce each student’s name correctly and to know the national origin of the student and a little background information about them (Alidou, 2000).  In addition to making this effort, Alidou also suggests that the teacher should learn to accept different ways of speaking English.  Students from some countries in Africa and Asia, among others, speak English as a native language, but with a different set of pronunciation rules.  By taking these steps and coming into the classroom with an open mind, the teacher will develop “new understandings of the cultural content of the classroom and curriculum” (Meyer, 2000, p. 232).   [paragraph 21]

Reduce the Language Load

Teacher talk is often filled with words that are unfamiliar to the English language learner, which results in a lot of strain and pressure in trying to process what the teacher says in the classroom or what is read (Meyer, 2000).  This results in a heavy “language load” for the English language learner.  Teachers could employ several strategies to help students as they strive for proficiency in English.  They could either rewrite difficult texts using simpler terms or at least explain them, by breaking up complex sentences into smaller sentences.  New, particularly difficult words could be pointed out, defined and explained in relevant terms.  If a particular topic is studied in the classroom, the teacher could have at the students’ disposal several different sources that provide the same information but in varied levels of linguistic difficulty.  Teachers could avail themselves of the material found in the children’s section of a library.   [paragraph 22]

The English language learner relies on teachers to use English skillfully.  Teachers might purposefully select words and sentence structures that will help the students learn, rather than hinder their success in the classroom.  This is not to say that the teacher should avoid using academic language.  Teachers should avoid using oversimplified vocabulary which could insult the immigrant student (Gersten, 1999). Instead, the teacher might model academic language, surrounding it with appropriate context clues and other information that will help the English language learner to understand and learn these words (Meyer, 2000).  Teachers should also consider using visual manipulatives and the written word to reinforce what is spoken (Gersten, 1999).  The strategic use of synonyms is also useful.   [paragraph 23]

Encourage Students to Use Their Native Language

One debate that continues in the field of ESL is concerning whether language learners should be allowed to use their native language while learning English.  It is not the intent of the authors to support or refute bilingual education.  Rather, studies show that there are benefits to students holding on to their native language, whether it is used in the classroom or at home (see Chow, 2001; Bankston & Zhou, 1995; Cazden & Snow, 1990; Duran, 1983; Lindholm & Aclan, 1991).  It is argued in these studies that students who maintain their native language while learning English have achieved a valuable goal by obtaining the skill of bilingualism.  Furthermore, it is believed that students who continue to speak their native language have greater success in learning English.  Rong and Preissle (1998) also found that bilingual speakers have a lower dropout rate than those who only speak English.  It is, therefore, recommended that teachers encourage their immigrant students to use their native language, whether at home or in school.  Many immigrant students learn so quickly that their native language is “dead weight” to their social and academic success.  But if teachers would simply demonstrate that they value the richness of students who can speak other languages, those students who do speak others languages would not be so hasty to abandon their native language for English.  An example of what a teacher might do to encourage the native languages of her students is found in Igoa (1995).  Igoa encouraged her students to read in the classroom, and she made it a point to encourage her students to read in their native language as well as in English during their reading time.  She encouraged the students to write in their native languages as well as in English.  She also took opportunities to use her immigrant students as teachers of culture in her classroom.  For example, one of her Chinese-speaking students taught the other students in the class how to write their names in Chinese.  While she encouraged the use of native languages in the classroom, she was also sensitive to the students’ need to learn English and emphasized the use of English.  These examples demonstrate small, yet significant, ways that a teacher can show that one’s native language is valuable, while providing them what they need to learn English.   [paragraph 24]

Work with Parents as a Team

Fillmore (2000) proposes four suggestions on parent-teacher teamwork, which is believed to help ease the struggle that immigrant students face in school and the community.  First, teachers and parents, together, must see the importance of the immigrant child learning their native language in addition to English.  She suggests that parents should talk to their children in the native language and tell stories either through reading or oral tradition.  Teachers should encourage students to use these stories in school assignments.  Second, both parents and teachers need to make themselves aware of the possible traumatic emotional experiences that immigrant children may face.  Parents and teachers should watch for signs of such problems and seek professional treatment and support.  The lack of attention to this matter may lead to drastic consequences, such as suicide (Alidou, 2000).  Third, parents and teachers need to watch for negative forces in the immigrant child’s life.  Often children alienate themselves from their family and culture in their attempt to assimilate into the American mainstream.  Parents and teachers need to take a more proactive approach to know what is going on in a child’s life.  Fourth, parents and teachers should encourage involvement in community events that help promote ethnic languages and cultures.  Such activities help keep the cultures and languages of the immigrant population alive, where the immigrant student can see how it is valued and cherished.  A fifth suggestion comes from Alidou (2000) who comments that teachers should welcome parents as a resource.  The parents of immigrant children can talk about their cultures to classrooms and bring items from their countries.  Parents who have been in the country and school system for some time can also serve as interpreters and mentors for other students’ parents.  It is important to get the parents involved in the school and to tap into the resources that they have to offer the community.   [paragraph 25]
 

Conclusion  
 

I am sick and tired of being called names.  Can I be myself?  I do not know COUNTRY.  I do not know Africa anymore and I can’t talk to Black kids.  I can’t talk to White Kids.  I can’t talk to my teachers.  They can’t [under]stand me because I have a strong accent and a difficult name.  Each time the teacher calls me, my classmates laugh.  I am sick and tired.  My parents are worst.  They do not understand me.  I hate the whole thing. (Alidou, 2000, p. 104)   [paragraph 26]

The above is the farewell note written by a young African teenager who committed suicide as a result of feeling rejected by his peers, his teachers, and his family. Situations such as the one described here, along with the ever-increasing number of immigrant children entering schools across the United States, have created an urgent need to prepare our teachers to welcome these students into their classrooms.  Immigrant students face many challenges as they struggle to fit into a new society, a new language, and a new school.  If our teachers are not prepared to deal with these students, they will continue to enter our schools and our society only to face undue hardship.   [paragraph 27]

To conclude, the authors have presented several of the major issues surrounding immigrant children and their experiences in school in North America.  They have further presented many steps that teachers could take to create a positive learning environment for their immigrant students.  It is imperative that teachers across the country learn that they must step out of their comfort zone and open their minds to the many differences that immigrant children bring to the classroom.  By accepting and embracing those differences, our schools will be better prepared to welcome all who come seeking an education.   [paragraph 28]  
 

References
 

Alidou, H. (2000).  Preparing teachers for the education of new immigrant students from Africa.  Action in Teacher Education, 22(2A), 101-108.

Bankston, C. L., & Zhou, M. (1995).  Effects of minority-language literacy on the academic achievement of Vietnamese Youths in New Orleans.  Sociology of Education, 68, 1-17.

Carger, C. L. (1996).  Of borders and dreams.  New York, NY:  Teachers College.

Cazden, C., & Snow, C. E. (1990).  English plus:  Issues in bilingual education, preface.  Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 508, 9-11.

Chiang, L. H. (2000).  Teaching Asian American students.  Teacher Educator, 36(1), 58-69.

Chow, H. P. H. (2001).  English-language use among Chinese adolescent immigrants.  The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 47(2), 191-195.

Cummins, J. (1981).  Age on arrival and immigrant second language learning in Canada:  A reassessment.  Applied Linguistics, 2, 132-149.

Cummins, J. (1996).  Negotiating identities:  Education for empowerment in a diverse society.  Ontario, CA:  California Association for Bilingual Education.