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THIS
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REVIEWS:
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Heewon Chang, Ph. D.
Eastern
University
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Math and Science
Websites for Teachers:
Marsha D. Daria,
Ph.D.
Children often judge their academic ability and worth as individuals by the evaluations they receive from their teachers. Teacher biases and negative attitudes can negatively affect student learning, interactions among peers, and self-perception (Banks, 1972). These effects are among the factors that contribute to the alarming achievement gaps that exist between boys and girls and between white and non-white students in the areas of math and science. According to the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), The Nation's Report Card: Science 2000, males showed higher composite average scale scores in science than females at grades 4 and 8. The average scale score (with Standard Errors in Parentheses) for males in fourth grade was 153.3 (0.8) while females scored 147 (0.8). The average scale score for eighth grade boys was 154 (0.7) while females scored 147 (0.8). There is also an achievement gap between races. Composite mathematics scores for students in grade12 on the NAEP (2000) showed that black students demonstrated a wider gap in achievement than their white peers. African American students' average scale score in math was 273.7 (2.0), while white students' scored 306.6 (1.2). Hispanic students scored slightly higher than African Americans, but lower than whites with an average scale score of 281.7 (2.3). [paragraph 1] Mathematics
educators believe that gender stereotypes are one type of biases
that influence student competency (Leder, Forgasz & Solar, 1996;
Secada, Fennema, & Adajian, 1995). Often teachers' perceptions
that boys are more able mathematically than girls influence the
way they interact with their female students and result in
girls' receiving fewer resources that are needed to succeed in
mathematics (Tiedemann, 2002). Research suggests that teacher
perceptions do contribute to the differences in boys' and girls'
attitudes toward math and science that are observed as early as
elementary school (Bleeker & Jacobs, 2004; Tiedemann, 2002;
Zemore, Fiske, & Kim, 2000). In a recent study, math teachers
were asked to evaluate the achievement of boys and girls in
fifty elementary school classes (Tiedemann, 2002). Teachers
reported that their average achieving girls were less talented
than their equally achieving boys. This stereotype can only have
a negative effect on the way teachers perceive their students'
ability and performance in class. It is imperative that teachers
provide a positive environment for girls, just as they do for
boys, in order to help them succeed in math and science. The
goal of all math teachers should be to show girls their
strengths in math and help them to believe that they are capable
individuals.
[paragraph 2] Science teachers also must look beyond the gender stereotypes in order to help girls succeed. According to The National Science Research Council, "All students… should have the opportunity to attain high levels of scientific literacy" (National Research Council, 1996, p.20). Many science teachers believe that all students should have fair and equal opportunities to become literate in science (Barton, 2000). Most often, the challenge for these teachers is finding a way to help all students feel connected to science. [paragraph 3] Gender differences in math and science achievement are exacerbated for African American and Hispanic girls. Campbell and Clewell (1999) describe the achievement gap that exists between white and non-Asian minority students. Black students have had to overcome the stigma and self-image brought on by slavery, which labeled them as having inferior intelligence and capability. Unfortunately, this stigma still exists in subtle forms and does little to encourage young black females to pursue careers in math and science (Bradley, 1997). Hispanic females are also at a disadvantage, though for different reasons. For example, there is evidence that female Hispanic American students have difficulty adjusting to competitive learning environments (Nieto Senor, 1977). They tend to do better with positive interventions such as bilingual and bicultural programs that enhance their self-esteem. [paragraph 4]
To attain equity in math and science, all
students must be given a chance to succeed by being provided
with equal opportunities, resources, and outcomes (Lynch et al.,
1996; Secada, 1994). Internet sites are an excellent resource
that can be used by teachers to integrate gender-based concepts
and principles into math and science curricula at the
elementary, middle, and secondary grades. Many of the sites can
be used at more than one grade level.
[paragraph 5] Tiedemann ( 2002) argues that girls develop a natural curiosity for science and math in elementary school if they are encouraged to do so. Resources that promote hands-on instruction tend to stimulate girls' academic interests at this level (Wood, 2000). Internet sites that may be useful to girls during this level include:
Middle School is a pivotal time for all girls. They have become more competitive with their male counterparts in all subject areas until they reach middle school (Sadker & Sadker, 1994). Statistics show that girls' mathematic scores decrease in middle school when compared to scores achieved in elementary school (Ogens,1991). This decrease may be as the result of the new school environment (Steinkamp & Maehr, 1984). Girls encounter more male teachers and students in middle school. They are also placed in less structured environments that may cause them to have less confidence and low self-esteem. The following websites may be useful to teachers in middle schools:
Although an increased number of female students participate in science classes at the middle and high school level, their performance continues to lag behind that of their male counterparts (Thorn, 2002). One research study reported that high school girls felt less confident than male students about their abilities and likelihood of success in physical science and engineering professions and were more likely to predict having a career in the health sciences (Jacobs, Finken, Griffen, & Wright, 1998). Research indicates that high school science and mathematics instruction should reinforce the self-confidence that girls demonstrate in earlier grades (Jones, 1994). This can be done by setting minimum standards for the number of science and math courses required for graduation according to Jones. The websites below will benefit high school girls:
Gender and racial/ethnic stereotypes,
cultural experiences, and societal expectations are among the
factors that can affect girls’ achievement in math and science.
Teachers can have a profound impact on girls' self-image and
confidence levels in these subject areas. For this reason, it is
imperative for teachers to create learning environments that are
non-threatening and supportive and that offer girls
opportunities for continuous success. The Internet can be used
as a tool to supplement these efforts at all academic levels.
[paragraph 9] (Editors' note: At time of publication, all hyperlinks referenced in this article are active. We are not responsible for content not hosted by EMME.) Banks, J. A. (1972, January). Imperatives in ethnic minority education. Phi Delta Kappa, 53. Barton, A. C. (2000). Crafting multicultural science education with preservice teachers through service-learning. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 32(6), 797-821. Bleeker, M. M. & Jacobs, J. E. (2004). Achievement in math and science: Do mothers' beliefs matter 12 years later? Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(1), 97-109. Bradley, R. M. (1997). Science education for a minority within a minority. Minority Science Teacher, 59(2), 73-79. Campbell, P. B. & Clewell, B. C. (1999). Science, math, and girls…Still a long way to go. Education Week,19(2), 50-51. Jacobs, J. E., Finken, L. L., Griffen, N. L. & Wright, J. D. (1998). The career plans of science-talented rural adolescent girls. American Educational Research Journal, 35(4), 681-704. Jones, C. (1994, August 30). Amid doubts, schools tackle upgrade of math and science. The New York Times, p. A1. Leder, G. C., Forgasz, H. J. & Solar, C. (1996). Research and intervention programs in mathematics education: A gender issue. In A. Bishop, K. Clements, C. Keital, J. Kilpatrick, & C. Laborde (Eds.), International handbook of mathematics education, Part 2, (pp.932-961). Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishing. Lynch, S., Atwater, M., Cawley, J., Eccles, J., Lee, O., Marrett, C., Rojas-Medlin, D., Secada, W., Stefanich, G., & Wiletto, A. (1996). An equity blueprint for Project 2061 science education reform: Second draft. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science. National Assessment of Educational Progress (2000). The Nation’s Report Card: Science 2000. Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics [Online]. Retrieved November 15, 2004, from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/ National Research Council (1996). National science education standards. Washington, D.C. National Academy Press. Nieto Senor, M. (1977). Psychology of the Chicano. In J. L. Martinez (Ed.), Chicano Psychology (pp. 329-343). New York: Academic Press. Ogens, E. M. (1991). A review of science education: Past failures, future hopes. The American Biology Teacher, 53(4), 199-203. Sadker, M. & Sadker, D. (1994). We must tell girls: "You're smart, you can do it." New York Teacher, 35(13), 23. Secada, W. (1994). Equity in restructured schools. NCRMSE Research Review: The Teaching and Learning of Mathematics, 3, 11-12. Secada, G. W., Fennema, L. B. & Adajian, L. B. (Eds.) (1995). New directions for equity in mathematics education. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Steinkamp, M. W. & Maehr, M. L. (1984). Gender differences in motivational orientation toward achievement in school science: A quantitative synthesis. American Educational Research Journal, 21(1), 39-59. Thorn, M. (2002). Girls in science and technology: What's new, what's next? Education Digest, 67(5), 17-24. Tiedemann, J. (2002). Teachers' gender stereotypes as determinants of teacher perceptions in elementary school mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 50(1), 49-62. Wood, J. M. (2000). The girls have it! Instructor, 109(6), 31-35. Zemore, S. E., Fiske, S. T., Kim, H. J., (2000). Gender stereotypes and the dynamics of social interaction. In T. Eckes and H. M. Trautner (Eds.), The developmental social psychology of gender (pp.207-241). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Recommended Citation in the APA Style:
Daria, M. P. (2004). Math and science websites for teachers:
Resources for enhancing learning for girls at the elementary,
middle, and high school levels.
Electronic Magazine of Multicultural Education [online],
6(2), 9 paragraphs <Available:
http://www.eastern.edu/publications/emme/2004fall/daria.html>
[your access year, month date]
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